تبیین سقوط نظام سیاسی سوریه از منظر اقتصاد سیاسی

References

Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity and poverty. Crown Publishing Group. https://ia801506.us.archive.org/27/items/WhyNationsFailTheOriginsODaronAcemoglu/Why-Nations-Fail_-The-Origins-o-Daron-Acemoglu.pdf

Alexander, B. (2021, February 18). Syria's economic collapse and its impact on the most vulnerable. Center for Strategic International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/syrias-economic-collapse-and-its-impact-most-vulnerable

Ali, N., Din, J. U., Kousar Ali, D. M. I., & Azhar, M. (2024). “The root causes of the Syrian crisis: Analyzing internal and external factors”. Remittances Review, 9, 211-229. https://doi.org/10.33282/rr.vx9i4.11

Aligica, P., & Tarko, V. (2014). “Crony capitalism: Rent seeking, institutions and ideology”. Kyklos, 67(2), 156-176. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/kykl.12048

Al-Saeed, A., & El-Khalil, Z. (2024, May 24). Syria: Growth contraction deepens and the welfare of Syrian households deteriorates. World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2024/05/24/syria-growth-contraction-deepens-and-the-welfare-of-syrian-households-deteriorates

Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). Syria country report 2024. Bertelmann Transformation Index (BTI). https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/SYR#pos7

Cammett, M., Diwan, I., Rechards, A., & Waterbury, J. (2017). A political economy of the Middle East (F. Argavani & S. Pirankhoo, Trans.). Mokhatab Publication. [In Persian].

Cheung, F., Kube, A., Tay, L., Diener, E., Jackson, J., Lucas, R. E., … & Leung, G. M. (2020). “The impact of the Syrian conflict on population well-being”. Nature Communications, 11(1), 3899. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-17369-0.pdf

Daher, J. (2017, November 21). “Crony capitalism and federalism in Syria's reconstruction: Interview with Joseph Daher (K. Alhayek, Interviewer)”. Salon Syria. https://www.salonsyria.com/crony-capitalism-and-federalism-in-syrias-reconstruction-interview-with-joseph-daher/

Daher, J., & Mehchy, Z. (2025). Syria's economic transition: From kleptocracy to Islamic neoliberalism in a war-torn economy. PeaceRep: The Peace and Conflict Resolution Evidence Platform, School of Law, University of Edinburgh. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/43106

Danish Refugee Council. (2024, March 16). “After 13 years of war, Syria's catastrophic economy is pushing people beyond desperation”. https://drc.ngo/resources/news/after-13-years-of-war-syria-s-catastrophic-economy-is-pushing-people-beyond-desperation

ESCWA United Nations. (2025, January 20). “Syria at the crossroads: New ESCWA-UNCTAD report warns of economic ruin, pointing to potential pathways to stability”. https://www.unescwa.org/news/syria-crossroads-new-escwa-unctad-report-warns-economic-ruin-pointing-potential-pathways

Haid, H. (2023, July 3). “Cashing in on Syria's crony capitalism: The timing of the asset seizures strongly suggests a regime desire to bolster its political position in the region, specifically with Iraq”. The Arab Weekly. https://thearabweekly.com/cashing-syrias-crony-capitalism

Kešeljević, A., & Spruk, R. (2024). “Estimating the effects of Syrian civil war”. Empirical Economics, 66(2), 671-703. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00181-023-02470-2.pdf

Kirsanli, F. (2023). “Crony capitalism and corruption in the Middle East and North Africa”. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, 68, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2023-1210965

Kozul-Wright, A. (2025, January 8). “Rebuilding Syria's economy: Can stability return after war?” Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2025/1/8/rebuilding-syrias-economy-can-stability-return-after-war

Madadi, H., Abazari, M., & Ahmadi, H. (2024). “Investigating the relationship between drought and the start of the war in Syria using the theory of relative deprivation”. Research Political Geography Quarterly, 8(4), 142-160. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22067/pg.2024.84866.1243

Makki, D. (2023, August 16). “Syria's economic freefall continues despite Arab League return”. Middle East Institute. https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-economic-freefall-continues-despite-arab-league-return

Mehchy, Z., Haid, H., & Khatib, L. (2020, November). Assessing control and power dynamics in Syria: De facto authorities and state institutions. Middle East and North Africa Programme, Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-11/2020-11-11-control-power-syria-mehchy-haid-khatib_0.pdf

Mehchy, Z., Hal Ali, H., & Alnakib, S. (2022). Mechanism of exploitation: Economic and social changes in Syria during the conflict. The Day After (with support of Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung). https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/beirut/19603-20221017.pdf

Mounier-Kuhn, A. (2025, January 14). “Syrian economy on its knees”. Monde Diplomatique. https://mondediplo.com/2025/01/03syria-box

Niakooee, S. A. (2012). The anatomy of contemporary Arab revolutions. Mizan Legal Foundation. [In Persian].

Niakooee, S. A. (2020). Arab winter and democracy dilemma in the Middle East. Mokhatab Publication. [In Persian].

Niakooee, S. A., & Mousavi Kordmiri, S. H. (2025). “The reasons behind the different outcomes of power struggle in Syria after the Arab Spring: From the civil war to the fall of the Assad's regime”. International Relations Researches, 14(4), 173-206. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22034/irr.2025.499126.2652

Niang, M. T. (2024, April 17). “The war economy of Syria”. Michigan Journal of Economics (University of Michigan Department of Economics). https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mje/2024/04/17/the-war-economy-of-syria/

North, D. C., Wallis, J. J., & Weingast, B. R. (2017). Violence and social orders: A conceptual framework for interpreting recorded human history (J. Khairkhahan & R. Majidzadeh, Trans.). Rozaneh Publication. [In Persian].

Pradhan, P. K. (2017). Arab Spring and sectarian faultlines in West Asia: Bahrain, Yemen and Syria. Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. https://www.idsa.in/publisher/book/arab-spring-and-sectarian-faultlines-in-west-asia-bahrain-yemen-and-syria-2/

Rad Goudarzi, M. (2019). “Climate changing and agricultural policies effects on formation of Syria civil war”. World Politics, 8(2), 41-66. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22124/wp.2019.3683

Resmic, M. (2024, March 12). The Syrian Arab Republic: Corruption and anti-corruption. Transparency International.

Shaar, K., & Heydemann, S. (2024, August 26). “Networked authoritarianism and economic resilience in Syria: Assad's emerging network of businesses helps him survive amid economic collapse”. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/networked-authoritarianism-and-economic-resilience-in-syria/

Siham, A. (2021). “The role of the Syrian business elite in the Syrian conflict: A class narrative”. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 49(3), 433-445. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2021.1920210

Steiner, A. (2024, December 12). UNDP Administrator's statement on Syria. United Nations Development Programme. https://www.undp.org/arab-states/speeches/undp-administrators-statement-syria

World Bank Group. (2022, October 20). The World Bank in Syrian Arab Republic. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/syria/overview#1

World Bank Group. (2024, October 10). Macro poverty outlook for Syrian Arab Republic: October 2024. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099617210152414596/idu1e896291c1751614c03189551eadb96c56942

Zibaei, M., & Najafi, S. (2025). “The collapse of the Syrian political system in light of the fourth generation of revolutionary theory”. The Revolutionary Research, 3(5), 61-82. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22034/fademo.2025.514169.1093

References

Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity and poverty. Crown Publishing Group. https://ia801506.us.archive.org/27/items/WhyNationsFailTheOriginsODaronAcemoglu/Why-Nations-Fail_-The-Origins-o-Daron-Acemoglu.pdf

Alexander, B. (2021, February 18). Syria's economic collapse and its impact on the most vulnerable. Center for Strategic International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/syrias-economic-collapse-and-its-impact-most-vulnerable

Ali, N., Din, J. U., Kousar Ali, D. M. I., & Azhar, M. (2024). “The root causes of the Syrian crisis: Analyzing internal and external factors”. Remittances Review, 9, 211-229. https://doi.org/10.33282/rr.vx9i4.11

Aligica, P., & Tarko, V. (2014). “Crony capitalism: Rent seeking, institutions and ideology”. Kyklos, 67(2), 156-176. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/kykl.12048

Al-Saeed, A., & El-Khalil, Z. (2024, May 24). Syria: Growth contraction deepens and the welfare of Syrian households deteriorates. World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2024/05/24/syria-growth-contraction-deepens-and-the-welfare-of-syrian-households-deteriorates

Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). Syria country report 2024. Bertelmann Transformation Index (BTI). https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/SYR#pos7

Cammett, M., Diwan, I., Rechards, A., & Waterbury, J. (2017). A political economy of the Middle East (F. Argavani & S. Pirankhoo, Trans.). Mokhatab Publication. [In Persian].

Cheung, F., Kube, A., Tay, L., Diener, E., Jackson, J., Lucas, R. E., … & Leung, G. M. (2020). “The impact of the Syrian conflict on population well-being”. Nature Communications, 11(1), 3899. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-17369-0.pdf

Daher, J. (2017, November 21). “Crony capitalism and federalism in Syria's reconstruction: Interview with Joseph Daher (K. Alhayek, Interviewer)”. Salon Syria. https://www.salonsyria.com/crony-capitalism-and-federalism-in-syrias-reconstruction-interview-with-joseph-daher/

Daher, J., & Mehchy, Z. (2025). Syria's economic transition: From kleptocracy to Islamic neoliberalism in a war-torn economy. PeaceRep: The Peace and Conflict Resolution Evidence Platform, School of Law, University of Edinburgh. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/43106

Danish Refugee Council. (2024, March 16). “After 13 years of war, Syria's catastrophic economy is pushing people beyond desperation”. https://drc.ngo/resources/news/after-13-years-of-war-syria-s-catastrophic-economy-is-pushing-people-beyond-desperation

ESCWA United Nations. (2025, January 20). “Syria at the crossroads: New ESCWA-UNCTAD report warns of economic ruin, pointing to potential pathways to stability”. https://www.unescwa.org/news/syria-crossroads-new-escwa-unctad-report-warns-economic-ruin-pointing-potential-pathways

Haid, H. (2023, July 3). “Cashing in on Syria's crony capitalism: The timing of the asset seizures strongly suggests a regime desire to bolster its political position in the region, specifically with Iraq”. The Arab Weekly. https://thearabweekly.com/cashing-syrias-crony-capitalism

Kešeljević, A., & Spruk, R. (2024). “Estimating the effects of Syrian civil war”. Empirical Economics, 66(2), 671-703. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00181-023-02470-2.pdf

Kirsanli, F. (2023). “Crony capitalism and corruption in the Middle East and North Africa”. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, 68, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2023-1210965

Kozul-Wright, A. (2025, January 8). “Rebuilding Syria's economy: Can stability return after war?” Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2025/1/8/rebuilding-syrias-economy-can-stability-return-after-war

Madadi, H., Abazari, M., & Ahmadi, H. (2024). “Investigating the relationship between drought and the start of the war in Syria using the theory of relative deprivation”. Research Political Geography Quarterly, 8(4), 142-160. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22067/pg.2024.84866.1243

Makki, D. (2023, August 16). “Syria's economic freefall continues despite Arab League return”. Middle East Institute. https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-economic-freefall-continues-despite-arab-league-return

Mehchy, Z., Haid, H., & Khatib, L. (2020, November). Assessing control and power dynamics in Syria: De facto authorities and state institutions. Middle East and North Africa Programme, Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-11/2020-11-11-control-power-syria-mehchy-haid-khatib_0.pdf

Mehchy, Z., Hal Ali, H., & Alnakib, S. (2022). Mechanism of exploitation: Economic and social changes in Syria during the conflict. The Day After (with support of Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung). https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/beirut/19603-20221017.pdf

Mounier-Kuhn, A. (2025, January 14). “Syrian economy on its knees”. Monde Diplomatique. https://mondediplo.com/2025/01/03syria-box

Niakooee, S. A. (2012). The anatomy of contemporary Arab revolutions. Mizan Legal Foundation. [In Persian].

Niakooee, S. A. (2020). Arab winter and democracy dilemma in the Middle East. Mokhatab Publication. [In Persian].

Niakooee, S. A., & Mousavi Kordmiri, S. H. (2025). “The reasons behind the different outcomes of power struggle in Syria after the Arab Spring: From the civil war to the fall of the Assad's regime”. International Relations Researches, 14(4), 173-206. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22034/irr.2025.499126.2652

Niang, M. T. (2024, April 17). “The war economy of Syria”. Michigan Journal of Economics (University of Michigan Department of Economics). https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mje/2024/04/17/the-war-economy-of-syria/

North, D. C., Wallis, J. J., & Weingast, B. R. (2017). Violence and social orders: A conceptual framework for interpreting recorded human history (J. Khairkhahan & R. Majidzadeh, Trans.). Rozaneh Publication. [In Persian].

Pradhan, P. K. (2017). Arab Spring and sectarian faultlines in West Asia: Bahrain, Yemen and Syria. Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. https://www.idsa.in/publisher/book/arab-spring-and-sectarian-faultlines-in-west-asia-bahrain-yemen-and-syria-2/

Rad Goudarzi, M. (2019). “Climate changing and agricultural policies effects on formation of Syria civil war”. World Politics, 8(2), 41-66. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22124/wp.2019.3683

Resmic, M. (2024, March 12). The Syrian Arab Republic: Corruption and anti-corruption. Transparency International.

Shaar, K., & Heydemann, S. (2024, August 26). “Networked authoritarianism and economic resilience in Syria: Assad's emerging network of businesses helps him survive amid economic collapse”. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/networked-authoritarianism-and-economic-resilience-in-syria/

Siham, A. (2021). “The role of the Syrian business elite in the Syrian conflict: A class narrative”. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 49(3), 433-445. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2021.1920210

Steiner, A. (2024, December 12). UNDP Administrator's statement on Syria. United Nations Development Programme. https://www.undp.org/arab-states/speeches/undp-administrators-statement-syria

World Bank Group. (2022, October 20). The World Bank in Syrian Arab Republic. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/syria/overview#1

World Bank Group. (2024, October 10). Macro poverty outlook for Syrian Arab Republic: October 2024. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099617210152414596/idu1e896291c1751614c03189551eadb96c56942

Zibaei, M., & Najafi, S. (2025). “The collapse of the Syrian political system in light of the fourth generation of revolutionary theory”. The Revolutionary Research, 3(5), 61-82. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22034/fademo.2025.514169.1093

References

Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity and poverty. Crown Publishing Group. https://ia801506.us.archive.org/27/items/WhyNationsFailTheOriginsODaronAcemoglu/Why-Nations-Fail_-The-Origins-o-Daron-Acemoglu.pdf

Alexander, B. (2021, February 18). Syria's economic collapse and its impact on the most vulnerable. Center for Strategic International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/syrias-economic-collapse-and-its-impact-most-vulnerable

Ali, N., Din, J. U., Kousar Ali, D. M. I., & Azhar, M. (2024). “The root causes of the Syrian crisis: Analyzing internal and external factors”. Remittances Review, 9, 211-229. https://doi.org/10.33282/rr.vx9i4.11

Aligica, P., & Tarko, V. (2014). “Crony capitalism: Rent seeking, institutions and ideology”. Kyklos, 67(2), 156-176. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/kykl.12048

Al-Saeed, A., & El-Khalil, Z. (2024, May 24). Syria: Growth contraction deepens and the welfare of Syrian households deteriorates. World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2024/05/24/syria-growth-contraction-deepens-and-the-welfare-of-syrian-households-deteriorates

Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). Syria country report 2024. Bertelmann Transformation Index (BTI). https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/SYR#pos7

Cammett, M., Diwan, I., Rechards, A., & Waterbury, J. (2017). A political economy of the Middle East (F. Argavani & S. Pirankhoo, Trans.). Mokhatab Publication. [In Persian].

Cheung, F., Kube, A., Tay, L., Diener, E., Jackson, J., Lucas, R. E., … & Leung, G. M. (2020). “The impact of the Syrian conflict on population well-being”. Nature Communications, 11(1), 3899. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-17369-0.pdf

Daher, J. (2017, November 21). “Crony capitalism and federalism in Syria's reconstruction: Interview with Joseph Daher (K. Alhayek, Interviewer)”. Salon Syria. https://www.salonsyria.com/crony-capitalism-and-federalism-in-syrias-reconstruction-interview-with-joseph-daher/

Daher, J., & Mehchy, Z. (2025). Syria's economic transition: From kleptocracy to Islamic neoliberalism in a war-torn economy. PeaceRep: The Peace and Conflict Resolution Evidence Platform, School of Law, University of Edinburgh. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/43106

Danish Refugee Council. (2024, March 16). “After 13 years of war, Syria's catastrophic economy is pushing people beyond desperation”. https://drc.ngo/resources/news/after-13-years-of-war-syria-s-catastrophic-economy-is-pushing-people-beyond-desperation

ESCWA United Nations. (2025, January 20). “Syria at the crossroads: New ESCWA-UNCTAD report warns of economic ruin, pointing to potential pathways to stability”. https://www.unescwa.org/news/syria-crossroads-new-escwa-unctad-report-warns-economic-ruin-pointing-potential-pathways

Haid, H. (2023, July 3). “Cashing in on Syria's crony capitalism: The timing of the asset seizures strongly suggests a regime desire to bolster its political position in the region, specifically with Iraq”. The Arab Weekly. https://thearabweekly.com/cashing-syrias-crony-capitalism

Kešeljević, A., & Spruk, R. (2024). “Estimating the effects of Syrian civil war”. Empirical Economics, 66(2), 671-703. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00181-023-02470-2.pdf

Kirsanli, F. (2023). “Crony capitalism and corruption in the Middle East and North Africa”. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, 68, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2023-1210965

Kozul-Wright, A. (2025, January 8). “Rebuilding Syria's economy: Can stability return after war?” Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2025/1/8/rebuilding-syrias-economy-can-stability-return-after-war

Madadi, H., Abazari, M., & Ahmadi, H. (2024). “Investigating the relationship between drought and the start of the war in Syria using the theory of relative deprivation”. Research Political Geography Quarterly, 8(4), 142-160. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22067/pg.2024.84866.1243

Makki, D. (2023, August 16). “Syria's economic freefall continues despite Arab League return”. Middle East Institute. https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-economic-freefall-continues-despite-arab-league-return

Mehchy, Z., Haid, H., & Khatib, L. (2020, November). Assessing control and power dynamics in Syria: De facto authorities and state institutions. Middle East and North Africa Programme, Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-11/2020-11-11-control-power-syria-mehchy-haid-khatib_0.pdf

Mehchy, Z., Hal Ali, H., & Alnakib, S. (2022). Mechanism of exploitation: Economic and social changes in Syria during the conflict. The Day After (with support of Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung). https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/beirut/19603-20221017.pdf

Mounier-Kuhn, A. (2025, January 14). “Syrian economy on its knees”. Monde Diplomatique. https://mondediplo.com/2025/01/03syria-box

Niakooee, S. A. (2012). The anatomy of contemporary Arab revolutions. Mizan Legal Foundation. [In Persian].

Niakooee, S. A. (2020). Arab winter and democracy dilemma in the Middle East. Mokhatab Publication. [In Persian].

Niakooee, S. A., & Mousavi Kordmiri, S. H. (2025). “The reasons behind the different outcomes of power struggle in Syria after the Arab Spring: From the civil war to the fall of the Assad's regime”. International Relations Researches, 14(4), 173-206. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22034/irr.2025.499126.2652

Niang, M. T. (2024, April 17). “The war economy of Syria”. Michigan Journal of Economics (University of Michigan Department of Economics). https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mje/2024/04/17/the-war-economy-of-syria/

North, D. C., Wallis, J. J., & Weingast, B. R. (2017). Violence and social orders: A conceptual framework for interpreting recorded human history (J. Khairkhahan & R. Majidzadeh, Trans.). Rozaneh Publication. [In Persian].

Pradhan, P. K. (2017). Arab Spring and sectarian faultlines in West Asia: Bahrain, Yemen and Syria. Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. https://www.idsa.in/publisher/book/arab-spring-and-sectarian-faultlines-in-west-asia-bahrain-yemen-and-syria-2/

Rad Goudarzi, M. (2019). “Climate changing and agricultural policies effects on formation of Syria civil war”. World Politics, 8(2), 41-66. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22124/wp.2019.3683

Resmic, M. (2024, March 12). The Syrian Arab Republic: Corruption and anti-corruption. Transparency International.

Shaar, K., & Heydemann, S. (2024, August 26). “Networked authoritarianism and economic resilience in Syria: Assad's emerging network of businesses helps him survive amid economic collapse”. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/networked-authoritarianism-and-economic-resilience-in-syria/

Siham, A. (2021). “The role of the Syrian business elite in the Syrian conflict: A class narrative”. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 49(3), 433-445. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2021.1920210

Steiner, A. (2024, December 12). UNDP Administrator's statement on Syria. United Nations Development Programme. https://www.undp.org/arab-states/speeches/undp-administrators-statement-syria

World Bank Group. (2022, October 20). The World Bank in Syrian Arab Republic. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/syria/overview#1

World Bank Group. (2024, October 10). Macro poverty outlook for Syrian Arab Republic: October 2024. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099617210152414596/idu1e896291c1751614c03189551eadb96c56942

Zibaei, M., & Najafi, S. (2025). “The collapse of the Syrian political system in light of the fourth generation of revolutionary theory”. The Revolutionary Research, 3(5), 61-82. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22034/fademo.2025.514169.1093